Teacher Learning Circles

Teacher Peer Learning

 

Bolam, R. (2008). Professional Learning Communities and Teachers’ Professional Development.  In David Johnson and Rupert Maclean Teaching: Professionalization, Development and Leadership. Springer Science and Business Media. (pp. 159-175 )

 

This chapter addresses the different approaches to teacher professional development and its effectiveness in improving teaching and student learning. To inform these different approaches, research on continuing professional development (CPD) in England help the author conclude that improvement in teaching and student learning most likely occur when school staff work in professional learning communities with encouragement from school leadership. According to the author, it is widely accepted that continuous professional learning by teachers is a necessary condition for school improvement. The author stresses the importance of capacity-building and collective learning at the school level in order to improve school effectiveness. In addition, schools that operate learning communities have a positive impact on pupil outcomes. Bolam et al. argue, “that school improvement research emphasized the need for school to create an infrastructure, especially collaborative patterns of staff development to enable knowledge of best practice and research findings to be shared and utilized.” (p.160) An important dimension to this claim is to consider the context, funding, size, structure, function, staffing and teaching models of schools. This is an important consideration in creating a Teacher Learning Circle curriculum, in which different professional development models should be contextualized to the context for full effectiveness.

 

Smith, T. (2002). Study circles challenge the intellect and strengthen the professional community. In B. Garner (Ed.), Focus on the Basics: Connecting Research and Practice (5 ed., Vol. D, pp. 16-18). Boston, MA: World Education.

 

Presenting results of the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy’s 2002 Staff Development Study, this article begins by introducing Center’s use of teacher “study circles” (equivalent to Teacher Learning Circles) that united teachers from various New England schools, bringing them together to discuss student goal-setting. The teachers first shared their perceived identities and roles as teachers, discussing how their roles as teachers affect their interactions with students. In regards to informing student goal-setting, the teachers debated how personal the teacher-student relationship should be with regard to students sharing past, and sometimes traumatic. Teachers then worked together, drawing from past discussions and teaching experiences, to design adaptable goal-setting guidelines that could apply to a number of classroom contexts. In later circles, the teachers (nearly the same educators as the first) also discussed the contextualization of a given curriculum by sharing their observations in their classrooms and reflecting on the strengths they each brought to their classrooms.

 

The author, who also participated in the circles, writes about how intellectually and professionally challenging these circles were. Furthermore, he reports that participation in the circles made the teachers feel more professionally respected amongst their peers, contributing to their self-confidence and willingness to participate in future circles. He stresses the importance, however, of designing circles around a set theme that is not only a priority to the school administration or PD organizers, but also to the teachers themselves. In doing so, the article argues that teachers feel more motivated, forming a mutual trust between them that eventually leads to sustainable growth.

 

The Annenberg Institute for School Reform. (2004). Professional Learning Communities: Professional Development Strategies that Improve Instruction. Retrieved from; http://annenberginstitute.org/pdf/proflearning.pdf

 

The purpose of this research is to inform reform policy on best practices in promoting and supporting the development of strong and systemic professional learning communities. Developed by the Annenberg Institute for School Reform (AISR) at Brown University, this research engages different urban schools systems across the United States and focuses particularly on English Language Learners and students from low-income backgrounds. AISR uses professional learning communities (PLCs) as the central element to create effective comprehensive reform initiatives. The research goes on to examine what PLCs look like and what makes them effective. PLCs can take on many different forms and can be school-based, district-based, cross-district, or national. The work that is done within PLCs is data-informed, standard-drive, and is focused on instruction, as well as equity and results within the community. The research claims that PLCs “go beyond the scope of study or support groups: they require that group members reflect honestly and openly together about their own practice, intentionally seeking ways to do their work better and continually building their capacity to do so.” (p.4) Lessons and implications from this research on PLCs include: the fact that too much emphasis is placed on the process, issues of trust and equity are often not addressed, leadership capacity is often underdeveloped, and effects of changes in student improvement are poorly documented. These lessons learned and implications would be critical in developing a curriculum for Teacher Learning Circles.

 

Webb, R., Vulliamy, G., Sarja, A., Hamalainen, S., Poikonen, P.L. (2009). Professional learning communities and teacher well-being? A comparative analysis of primary schools in England and Finland. Oxford Review of Education. 35(3). Pg. 405 – 422.

 

This study compares professional learning communities (PLCs) in England and Finland during times of curriculum reform, focusing specifically on teacher wellbeing. According to Webb, et al. (2009) researchers generally agree that “shared values and vision, a supportive environment, reflective professional enquiry, collaboration and collective responsibility” comprise PLCs (p. 406). In England, researchers looked at the introduction of a number of national strategies meant to address the fact that the country continued to fall behind global competition. Finland, on the other hand, boasts consistently high test results. To maintain these high levels, Finland introduced standardization, as well as a system wherein local management oversaw schools. Researchers present data along four themes: primary school community, collaborative working, continuing PD, and trust and accountability (Webb, et al., 2009, p. 406).

In both countries, key personalities (and in particular, head teachers) serve as the foundation for primary school cultures. As a result, the culture was vulnerable to change with staff turnover. School leadership, particularly in Finland, found that the reform increased their workload. While the reform recommended delegation of leadership, it proved culturally difficult to achieve. Creating a community of inclusiveness also became more difficult as staff numbers grew.  England, however, found this recommendation particularly difficult due to the hierarchical nature of the schools, in comparison to the participatory nature of Finish schools.

 

Collaboration and PLCs decreased “burnout” among teachers while simultaneously raising standards among students. Within a single school, teachers were able to develop collaborative learning and senior-junior teacher mentorships. This has been a more difficult transition in Finland, where teachers are more accustomed to competing against one another. In both countries, competition decreased collaboration, however in Finland, mandates by the Finish Ministry of Education to increase cross-school collaboration has aided in the efficiency of curriculum planning and the development of school-specific curricula.

Continuing PD (CPD) proved to be most effective in regards to teacher ownership. In England, CPD has focused on meeting student standards. Similarly, Finland has centralized its teacher PD, therefore only skimming the surface of necessary skill-building. This centralized, top-down approach has eliminated the ability for teachers to participate in self-directed training initiatives.

 

For a long time, teachers in England have experienced very low rates of trust from society. In combination with the high emphasis placed on testing, these teachers are unlikely to make any drastic changes, for fear of risking their position in the school. On the contrary, due to the much higher levels of trust in Finnish teachers, these teachers are able to make changes as they see necessary.

 

In both England and Finland, PLCs led to positive outcomes in teacher wellbeing, motivation, and PD. Relationships, culture, and community ranked among the most important aspects of PLCs to teachers. Though this comparative study could not consider all aspects of teacher wellbeing, it did highlight the need for personalization of PD programs. This study supports the need for teacher learning circles that promote teacher well being, such as the TLC project. TLCs are designed to personalize the professional development of teachers in emergency settings.

 

Teacher Professional Development

 

Belay, A., Ghebreab, F., Ghebremichael, T., Ghebreselassie, A., Holmes, J., & White, G. (2006). How newly qualified primary teachers develop: A case study in rural Eritrea. International Journal of Educational Development, 27, 669-682.

 

Conducted by a team of European and Eritrean researchers, this study assesses the developmental processes of newly qualified teachers (NQTs) in rural and/or low-income areas of Eritrea across a four-year period (2001-2004). Drawing from classroom observations, teacher interviews, and Eritrea’s Asmara Teacher Education Institute curriculum, the study analyzes the progress of newly hired teachers in terms of classroom management, student academic achievement, differentiation and personal motivation. Researches then use this data to offer theories as to why some teachers develop more effectively than others.

 

According to this study, new teachers in Eritrea most often work in rural area schools. These teachers are more willing to move away from home and/or urban areas, because they are usually unmarried and without children. These placements, however, distance NQTs from the well-financed and better-developed systems of teacher support that exist in Eritrea’s more urban areas; therefore, NQTs in Eritrea generally start their teaching careers isolated from ongoing PD initiatives.

 

The study found that a number of factors may contribute to new teacher development.  Using two teachers – one who showed positive development over the four-year study and another who did not show progress in his practice – the researchers argue that gender, school community, and starting abilities and attitudes all influence the improvement of new teacher practice. Specifically, the researchers focus on the relationship between school environment and NQTs’ identities as educators. The article notes that, though many new teachers in the study had the opportunity to consult with other teachers in their schools, often these teachers were not much more experienced than the NQTs; therefore, rather than inciting positive development and improvement in practice, consulting with equally new or ineffective teachers can actually perpetuate negative practices.

 

Based on this study, it is clear that developing a positive school environment remains a strong way to improve teacher practice and motivation in the classroom.  According to the authors, in-service training opportunities for new teachers are paramount to improving and increasing development in the early years of a teacher’s career. With regard to Teacher Learning Circles, this article highlights the need for a diverse group of teachers to participate in the Circles. These teachers should come from different areas, possess different levels of experience, and harbor diverse knowledge of pedagogical strategies in order to maximize the effectiveness of in-service training.

 

Bennell, P. and Akyeampong, K. (2007). Teacher Motivation in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Retrieved from; http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/PDF/Outputs/PolicyStrategy/ResearchingtheIssuesNo71.pdf

 

This paper summarizes the main findings and recommendations of an international research study on teacher motivation and incentives in both sub-Sahara Africa and South Asia. Researches decided on 12 case studies from these regions due to the large challenges that these countries still face in regards to achieving Education for All (EFA) goals. A critical finding that emerged from these case studies was that a sizable proportion of primary schools, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, have extremely low levels of job satisfaction and teachers are poorly motivated. The direct effect of these finding is that schools are providing minimally acceptable education and not properly educating tens of millions of children. The study cites that accountability, conflict and security, the policy environment, pay, vocational commitment and occupational status, teacher competence, working and living conditions and teaching management as key determinants for such low teacher motivation. In regards to these determinants the study further examines motivation theory, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, and teacher motivation in developed countries to explain teacher motivations in developing countries. The study states that the enormous challenge of addressing teacher motivations in developing countries causes reluctance in local governments and their international partners when it comes to addressing these issues.

 

Our Teacher Learning Circles will take into consideration Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory in order to ensure that teacher motivations remain high. In order to do this, the Teacher Learning Circles curriculum will consider issues regarding teacher’s basic needs such as food, housing and security. According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, if these needs are not adequately satisfied, higher order needs cannot be achieved.

 

Bond, H. (2010). Balancing teacher quality and quantity. Technology Enhanced Learning. Quality of Teaching and Educational Reform, 73, 474.

 

Drawing from scholarly articles, government documents, and 2010 EFA data, this article argues that teacher recruitment should prioritize quality –  not simply quantity – when recruiting in developing and fragile states. The article begins by giving a brief history of international education reform, focusing on teacher recruitment and professional development (PD) initiatives. Citing growing school enrollment as a result of Education for All (EFA), the article makes a strong argument for both an increased teaching force and lower student-teacher ratios as means of stability in developing areas.  The article, however, also claims that, teacher quality is too often overlooked, as the quantity of teachers is generally the primary focus of development interventions.

High-quality teaching, the article claims, fosters a positive learning environment for students, provides psychosocial support, and raises student academic achievement. Furthermore, these characteristics in classroom and school communities support development and peacekeeping endeavors. While the article makes a convincing argument, it also lacks in citing evidence beyond EFA data and UNESCO statistics. Drawing from individual case studies and/or country data would strengthen the article significantly. In regards to our Teacher Learning Circles, the article presents a strong rationale for prioritizing the development of teachers’ skills and confidence in developing and fragile states.

 

Echevarria, J., Richards-Tutor, C., Chinn, V. P., & Rateff, P. A. (2011). Did They Get It? The Role of Fidelity in Teaching English Learners. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(6), 425–434.

 

Focused specifically on English learners (ELs), this article discusses ways in which content literacy among ELs can heavily depend on which instructional models teachers follow. Demonstrating the importance of loyally implementing research-based practices, the authors argue that literature on research-based literacy practices often omit the importance of the relationship between student achievement and teacher implementation of research-based practices. The lack of discussion on this relationship leaves educators uncertain as to the actual effect that interventions can have on student achievement, and the authors seek to mend this gap by exposing the various ways in which fidelity (the degree to which teachers follow a model of instruction as it was originally intended) and high-quality PD can improve and increase student achievement. To achieve this goal, the authors focus on the fidelity with which teachers implement the Structured Instruction and Observation Protocol (SIOP) Model of instruction, which emphasizes the importance of language development for ELs in content areas across the curriculum. The SIOP Model consists of eight components: lesson preparation, building background, comprehensible input, strategies, interaction, practice/application, lesson delivery, and review/assessment. Apart from these steps, the SIOP model also discusses the importance of high levels of interaction between teachers and students across the curriculum and in a variety of settings. After receiving training on the SIOP model, teachers were provided with a “fidelity checklist” to help them follow the instructional model as they began to use it in their classrooms. In regards to measuring student outcomes, students were measured at first from a “baseline level” and then monitored from this point.

 

The findings revealed that teachers who implemented the model with the greatest level of fidelity had students with the greatest gains, and teachers with the lowest outcomes did a disproportionate amount of talking during lessons and deprived ELs from critical opportunities for language development. The teachers involved in the study ranged a variety of outcomes, and as a result, the authors suggest that some teachers may require more support than others when it comes to classroom implementation. Apart from the role of fidelity in student learning, the authors also argue that student achievement is directly linked to PD in which teachers are involved and engaged in sustained, collaborative PD settings that focus specifically on increasing content knowledge and instructional practices.

 

A highly scientific and clinical study, the article approaches qualitative outcomes (i.e. student learning and teacher effectiveness) from a quantifiable standpoint – attempting to measure human interactions and graph them according to a set of numerical values. As with any scientific study, the article runs the risk of omitting key factors of the study that could not have been quantified (i.e. student levels of comfort, security, and the extent to which certain learning models have the potential to promote safe learning environments). The study focused specifically on student learning outcomes in regards to language and, due to its narrow lens of focus, may have inadvertently omitted other key factors related to the overall improvement of student learning experiences.

 

Regarding our curriculum project, the intricate research approach featured in the article will not be of much use, as our project is not a research study but rather a set of curricular goals and collaborative approaches to teacher training. What we will be able to extract from this article, however, is the importance of teachers following the collaborative, learning circle model that we seek to put in place. As we move forward in designing our curriculum, we will consider the role of fidelity in our curriculum and what that may look like for our teachers (and their students).

 

Emerson, A., Deyo, L., Shoaib, M, Ahmed, J. (2010). Teacher Peer Learning Groups: Contributing factors to cluster sustainability. Journal of Education for International Development. 4(3).

 

In this article, Emerson, et al. studies the factors that lead to productive, self-governing, sustainable teacher peer learning groups (PLGs), or clusters, as a result of the Revitalizing, Innovating, Strengthening Education (RISE) project. This project arose out of a need to improve the quality of instruction in post-earthquake Pakistan in 2006 and considered the emotional trauma of the students and teachers, as well as  the outdated teaching techniques employed by many of the teachers. The main goals of the project included adaptation of active-learning techniques, development of long-term instructional support and local networks, and overall low costs. Throughout the duration of the project’s one-year cycle, teachers underwent an initial 12-day training, partook in monthly PLG meetings, and concluded with 3-day follow-up workshops.

 

Accessibility of clusters did not alone lead to sustainability, but rather it precluded other necessary indicators. The more benefit teachers felt they received from a cluster, the further they were willing to travel. Overall, the most important indicator of sustainability across PLGs was the sense of community. Teachers reported that cultivation of a supportive and friendly environment enabled them to open up, share problems, and develop deep friendships. Teachers also cited stability and regularity of meeting schedule and attendees as a critical factor that contributed to a sense of belonging. A sense of community (and subsequently leadership), led to members reporting feelings of agency, participation in decision-making, competency, and a sharing of skills and knowledge.

Despite the aforementioned indicators of sustainability, the clusters tended to focus on the need to build a safe space and community rather than these other indicators. When talking about the clusters, teachers could not clearly articulate their purposes, however they could explain why they attended these clusters and what the positive outcomes of these clusters were. In general, the project did not emphasize planning, but this could be as a result of the need for fluidity as well as the ability to evolve in order to make the clusters relevant.  Teachers found that relevance to their classrooms encouraged them to continue attending cluster meetings. In particular, they saw improved engagement, exam results, and enrollment among their students, as well as a decrease in the use of corporal punishment.  Among the successful clusters, leadership varied considerably, and therefore did not seem to cause or detract from sustainability. Most clusters, however, seemed to lack external support from the head teachers and education departments. In the few cases where head teachers were very involved, they seemed to detract from the necessary sense of community. Teachers and RISE staff noted that more support and recognition, rather than involvement, from head teachers and education departments could motivate sustainability among clusters.

 

The study clearly outlines indicators that may lead to sustainability of peer learning groups among teachers. Without also looking at the factors that cause other clusters to fail, it is difficult to determine whether these indicators are merely characteristics of all clusters or of successful clusters. A sense of belonging or community, the indicator that teachers and RISE staff marked as most vital to cluster sustainability, was not quantified or described in depth. As such, it is difficult to replicate and control for in the development of peer learning groups. Regardless, our Teacher Learning Circles can undoubtedly take into consideration the lessons learned from this project in Pakistan, as could any program focused on the development of teacher- or peer-learning groups.

 

Garet, M. S., Porter, A. C., Desimone, L., Birman, B. S., & Kwang, S. Y. (2001). What Makes PD Effective? American Education Research Journal, 38(4), 916–942.

 

Detailing the findings of an extensive research study, this article seeks to define a set of components related to effective PD (PD). Claiming that a lack of literature and research exist on this topic, the authors embark on an investigative journey to identify the qualities of PD that lead to both an improvement in the quality of teaching as well as an increase in overall student outcomes. The article views PD from a reform perspective, looking at PDs that seek to undo pedagogical patterns of memorization and direct instruction, instead looking at qualities of PD that lead to deeper and more comprehensive understandings of content.

 

Garet et. al., focus on a set of structural features (or characteristics of PD activity designs) and core features (attributes related to the substance of the overall PD experience). The form of the activity, the duration of the activity, and the degree to which the activity emphasizes collective participation comprise the structural features of effective PD. On the other hand, the degree to which the activity has a content focus, the extent to which the activity offers active learning opportunities, and the degree to which the activity promotes coherence form the core features of what the authors would deem highly effective PD.

Emphasizing the difference between reform PD and traditional PD, Garet et. al. bemoan the existence of traditional “one-shot” workshops that focus on individual teachers rather than collaborative and long-term construction of relevant teaching skills. Favoring reform tactics that focus on cohesive, ongoing experiences, the authors and their research findings contribute to the body of “best practice” literature in terms of effective PD, suggesting that PD move away from its current traditional practices and instead shift to a content-collaboration model wherein groups teachers across a network of districts, schools, and classrooms can learn collectively over a prolonged period of time.

 

While the authors present a focused approach to effective qualities of professional development, they do not discuss the concrete steps that administrators and curriculum designers need to take in order to implement these qualities. The questions still remains as to what this type of PD would look like for different subject matters and different schools in varying contexts. In terms of our curriculum, Emergency TLC, this article offers several key insights into how we can proceed in moving forward with our design. The research-based approach taken by Garet et. al. offers tangible evidence regarding the effectiveness and need for PDs that focus on collaboration and collective learning rather than individual teachers. Learning circles by nature foster an environment of collaboration and discussion, but what will prove especially useful to us from this study is the importance of duration; that is, the need for PDs to continue discussing certain topics in order for teachers (and subsequently, students) to achieve a deeper and more comprehensive understanding. The importance of “cohesive team learning” (or collective learning in relevant and immediate contexts) will help us as we move forward with our curriculum. We must envision our teachers as groups learning together in their own environments rather than individuals acquiring a set of prescribed skills in decontextualized settings.

 

While Garet et. al. define “content” in terms of math, science, and literature, our “content” focus will differ, instead focusing on conflict-sensitive topics in refugee and emergency settings. In this regard, the article may not offer us concrete guidelines, but its ability to define a set of universal structural and core features will undoubtedly provide us with a set of guidelines as we construct and adapt this collaborative PD model to our own content and focus.

 

Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE). (2010a). Guidance Notes on Teaching and Learning. Retrieved from; http://toolkit.ineesite.org/toolkit/INEEcms/uploads/1004/Guidance_Notes_on_Teaching_and_Learning_EN.pdf

 

Although access to education has improved considerably since the Dakar World Education Forum in 2000, the issue of quality education still presents a challenge in most developing, conflict-affected, and fragile countries. Created in 2010, the Guidance Notes on Teaching and Learning, builds upon the INEE Minimum Standards. More than 4,000 members working in over 138 countries developed the standards in a widely consultative process. This consultative process provided a framework by which to identify and address critical teaching and learning issues within crisis-affected communities. The Guidance Notes on Teaching and Learning reflect upon reoccurring themes of the instruction and learning processes and are categorized into three standards: curricula, training and professional development, and assessment of learning outcomes. In addition, each section provides a set of minimum standards, an overview of each standard, key points to consider, and processes for monitoring and evaluation. Designed for use by national governments, policy makers, and staff of implementing organizations, The Guidance Notes serve as a resource for donors, curriculum developers, researchers, training institutions, and community organizations.

 

Creating a framework such as the Guidance Notes on Teaching and Learning through a widely consultative network of members proves especially beneficial, because many different practitioners and academics from different international contexts participate in the process. Despite the number of benefits this approach brings, it can also pose challenges. Often it is difficult to collect data from those in varying crisis contexts; moreover, the analysis of this data has room for potential error.

 

Teacher Learning Circles can use the Guidance Notes in conceptualizing who a teacher is in a conflict or fragile state. The standard training, professional development and support states that teachers are often natural community leaders and they are often asked to take on  ‘additional responsibilities when families and communities are affected by conflict or disaster’ (INEE, 2010 p.19). This is a critical point to consider in developing our group’s curriculum schedule and work-load, because teachers are always taking on extra tasks – and in crisis this is only exacerbated. The Guidance Notes also acknowledges that teacher are often ‘last in line’ to receive resources and support (INEE, 2010 p.19).  This standard also states that there is a need to strengthen peer support for teachers in crisis, and that “training programs should promote professional peer support structures amongst teachers to increase their coping skills and reduce psychosocial stress”. This may involve providing opportunities for teachers to gather and share good practices. Teachers spending time with and learning from their peers may have a significant impact on the quality of teaching and the behavior and well-being of teachers” (INEE, 2010 p.25).

 

International Academy of Education. (2008). Teacher professional learning and development. Educational Practices Series, 18. Geneva: Helen Timperly.

 

This paper discusses relevant literature on teacher professional learning and the relationship with student outcomes. The complex activity of teaching is strongly associated with positive student outcomes. In order to improve teaching quality, professional development must be tailored to the appropriate context in which the teacher works. This paper suggests that an important aspect of contextualizing teacher professional development is teacher engagement. This engagement varies depending on the teachers’ past experiences with professional development as well as current student outcomes. The literature further indicates that context-specific teacher professional development programs have a greater impact than those of fixed programming that can be applied to a range of settings. In addition, the paper argues that professional development must bridge the gap between theory and practice in order to have an effective change.

 

The paper claims that student learning outcomes serve as the foundation for teacher professional development and engagement. The article, however, omits the aspect of varying teacher needs as a model of professional development. In regards to using Teacher Learning Circles as a form of teacher professional development, it will be critical to consider the aspects of context-specific programming rather than those of fixed programs.

 

Johnson, D. (2006). Investing in teacher effectiveness to improve educational quality in developing countries: does in-service education for primary mathematics teachers in Sri Lanka make a difference to teaching and learning?. Research in Comparative and International Education, 1(1).

 

This article reports on the methods and findings of a study focused on the outcomes of in-service teacher training interventions in Sri Lanka. The interventions, which were borne from Sri Lanka’s General Reform of Primary Education initiative in 1997, aimed at renewing curriculum policy and development, thereby highlighting a number of new pedagogical strategies on which teachers were trained. This in-service training included strategies related to lesson structure, differentiation, and psychosocial support.

 

The study found that, among the 71 second-grade teachers across all of Sri Lanka’s eight provinces, fewer than half of the observed, trained teachers consistently employed new strategies over three observations. The most observed strategy was vocabulary introduction (77.5% of teachers showed this consistently), while the least observed strategy was positively ensuring student participation (1.4% of teachers showed this consistently). The study also found very little evidence of teachers constructively identifying and correcting student errors, as well as distributing and using resources effectively or encouraging students to show their work.

 

Overall, this article gives a clear and rigorous review of the teaching strategies observed in Sri Lanka’s provinces. Some key information, however, is lacking: the article does not address the types of schools in which these observations took place (rural vs. urban, socioeconomic data), nor does it provide baseline data by which to assess how the curricular and training interventions have improved instruction. For the purposes of the Teacher Learning Circle Guide, this article outlines a number of positive strategies that participants can discuss and employ in fragile or crisis-affected states, especially within the realm of management and student participation.

 

Lefever-Davis, S., Wilson, C., Moore, E., Kent, A., & Hopkins, S. (2003). Trends in Teacher Certification and Literacy. The Reading Teacher, 56(8), 782–784.

 

Centered on a teacher study group approach to PD, this article focuses specifically on ways in which teacher study groups can help teachers support and promote student literacy development in the classroom. The authors argue that, in order for schools and teachers to make meaningful differences in the quality of education for all students, educators and school districts must create PD opportunities that are long-term, sustainable, collaborative, and grounded in meaningful inquiry. Seeking to address this approach, Lefever et. al. identify teacher study groups as a viable model of PD meant to achieve the aforementioned goals and objectives.

 

In teacher study groups, teachers learn from each other through conversation and collaborative discussion. These teacher study groups are teacher-led and focused on areas of common interest; that is, teachers voluntarily select the topics of study, gather a group of interested teachers, and determine their own action plans together in regards to implementation of content and standards. While teachers remain in charge of their own individual learning, they work together to reach personal goals through interaction with others.

 

Research has proven that teacher study groups can exist in a variety of settings and for a variety of purposes, and that all teacher study groups have resulted in an ultimate change in teacher behavior. Throughout the teacher study groups, teachers are encouraged to keep a portfolio of their own learning so that they can continually self-reflect and self-assess throughout the learning process. Liberating teachers from the confines of one-time PD workshops, teacher study groups allow teachers to schedule learning time when it is more conducive and productive for their personal studies. The voluntarily and self-selected nature of these study groups also enable teachers to collaboratively discuss and problem-solve issues directly related to their schools. The open-ended nature of teacher study groups allows for a PD model that specifically tailored to the needs and issues of teachers and their schools, resulting in an experience directly relevant to the context and circumstances.

 

Lefever et. al. identify several benefits directly related to teacher study groups. Above all, they cite that, since teachers invest more in these group opportunities, the time spent in these PD settings is more productive and efficient. Secondly, Lefever et. al. claim that teachers are more motivated to make changes and experience greater gains in learning when involved in teacher study groups. What the authors fail to consider, however, is what these teacher study groups may look like in various contexts. Undoubtedly, school districts in more affluent neighborhoods will have greater access to resources; likewise, schools in different international contexts may face systemic barriers to group collaboration – such as infrastructure and transportation. With so many benefits hinging upon this model of learning, it would behoove the authors to provide more insight into how education programs could adapt this model to a number of other contexts.

 

In terms of Teacher Learning Circles, this article will prove especially beneficial when it comes to planning learning opportunities and involving our teachers in the overall construction of learning. While our curriculum does not focus specifically on literacy practices (as did the article), the more universal concepts of self-selection and integration of personal/school needs will assist us in not making our curriculum rigidly fixed to a number of predetermined standards and goals. As learned from this article, a certain amount of personal input must be allowed in order for teachers to experience any sort of productive “buy-in” to the learning experience; while we may determine certain topics of discussion, we need to remember that, in designing activities and other discussion points, it is okay if teachers decide to take the curriculum in a direction different than that which we may have foreseen. With an ultimate goal of teacher change and teacher learning lying at the forefront of any PD curriculum, we as curriculum designers need to keep in mind the importance of teacher-led discussions, leaving space in our curriculum for learners to become teachers.

 

Smith, C. (2010). The Great Dilemma of Improving Teacher Quality in Adult Learning and Literacy. Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal, 4(2), 67–74.

 

Arguing for a new conceptualization of provisional development for the adult basic education and literacy (ABEL) field, Smith claims that current PD approaches in the ABEL field neglect evidence-based teacher preparation practice. The article begins by discussing the characteristics of teacher quality and what attributes positively affect the quality of teachers, giving special attention to the importance of ongoing PD.

 

Ultimately, Smith claims that the current PD structure for ABEL teachers needs substantial reconfiguration in order to implement evidence-based practices and therefore better prepare ABEL teachers. Further research, Smith claims, should center on core features already identified as effective, such as content focus, active learning, coherence, duration, and collective participation. Distinguishing between PD and professional learning, Smith proceeds to elaborate on the key features of professional learning, such as learning from experience, learning from reflective action, and learning mediated by context; the workplace, Smith argues, should promote a learning culture wherein teachers are constantly learning from both others and their own experiences. Smith further identifies teacher-led group learning as a critical part of any successful reform effort, emphasizing that the focus should be on the teachers’ learning rather than the content.

 

Essentially calling for a reorganization of PD structures, Smith suggests that ABEL PD allocate its resources to encompass a spectrum of types of knowledge: knowing about, knowing that, knowing how, and knowing whether or why. These four categories of PD comprise what Smith defines as main types of professional learning, and she laments the existence of “one-day” workshops, instead calling for longer-term solutions grounded in an array of the knowledge types listed above. While Smith’s recommendations certainly hold ground in today’s education and PD system, the fact remains that funds and expenditures for this particular field remain limited. Given that this barrier is the greatest barrier to transforming and restructuring ABEL PD systems, Smith’s article could benefit from providing concrete steps to resolving this other, more pressing issues, in addition to describing what PD needs to accomplish from a content and structural perspective.

 

Regarding our curriculum, this article illuminates the importance of ongoing PD – a common theme that thus far all readings have mentioned. This article also emphasizes the importance of structure in a PD setting. In order for Teacher Learning Circles to be successful, we must pay special attention to the way in which our learning circles structure themselves, and which types of knowledge our teachers will seek to receive and transmit upon completing their learning circles. As for the remainder of the article, however, it seems the majority of the smaller details and themes directly pertain to ABEL – a field drastically different from our conflict-affected focus. With literacy as its main goal, Smith’s article could perhaps offer more insight to curriculum designers whose main objectives lie in adult literacy or basic education.

 

Stover, K., Kissel, B., Haag, K., & Shoniker, R. (2011). Differentiated Coaching: Fostering Reflection with Teachers. The Reading Teacher, 64(7), 489–509.

 

Centered on the topic of literacy coaching and PD, Stover et. al. discuss the role of literacy coaches and how their differentiated support models and methods can help serve as catalysts for change and professional growth. With a main responsibility of fostering self-reflection and awareness in teachers, literacy coaches follow an ongoing model of feedback, practice, and reflection over time. They encourage teachers to journal about their experiences throughout the day, as well as take time at the end of the day to reflect on their role in certain events – curricular or not – that take place in the classroom. With literacy coaches, the focus lies on the individual, and coaches tailor “instruction” or collaboration based on their “trainee’s” needs.

 

Through self-reflection, teachers will develop a “buy-in” of sorts into the program; that is, their own awareness will serve to inspire them to continue engaging in PD practices. Change, Stover et. al. claim, occurs through steady observation of teaching practices, and with the help of literacy coaches, teachers will undergo this transformation while at the same time achieving a sense of ownership in their learning processes. Through literacy coaches, teachers find a voice in their learning, and their PD experience is reflective, collaborative, and aware of the specific needs and interests of individual teachers.

 

A fundamental tenet of the literacy coach model is the idea of trust. Working in tandem in a sort of partnership, teachers and coaches form a bond of trust that will enable teachers to take risks, ask questions, and learn together throughout the process. Secondary to fostering reflection is the role of fostering trust when it comes to the primary responsibilities of literacy coaches. As the foundation of learning, trust plays an exceptionally important role in the potential for teachers to grow in the PD experience.

 

Before beginning the coaching experience, coaches administer surveys to teachers to discover which topics and areas of interest in which they may already have sufficient prior knowledge or may need more work. Through surveys, coaches tailor “instruction” – or the experience – to the needs of the teachers, and in turn, teachers feel as if they get to choose the topics that best fit their aims and goals as both a teacher and learner. As a result, staff development sessions unite groups of teachers through their own common interests, fostering a sense of community rather than isolating teachers from relevant and meaningful topics.

 

With an emphasis on the individual relationship between coach and teacher, this model neglects the collaborative, group model seen in other PD approaches, instead centering on the teamwork transpiring between the coach and the teacher. While this model offers many benefits, it also inherently excludes the benefits reaped from group learning. This model of PD could benefit from incorporating a subset of attitudes focused on group learning, perhaps by creating study circles wherein teachers across various schools and districts come together to share their experiences and to continue their learning processes.

As for how this article can assist with Teacher Learning Circles, it provides great insight into the fundamental importance of trust and self-reflection. Without trust, our learning circles will undoubtedly fail. We must work to create an environment wherein trust and relationship-building remains firmly set in the curriculum. The structure of our Circles must foster safe learning environments wherein teachers feel comfortable enough to take risks, ask questions, and grow as learners. Additionally, ample opportunities must exist for teachers to engage in self-reflective practices, whether through portfolios, journals, or “quick-writes” (as suggested by Stover et. al.). If an end-goal of our curriculum is teacher transformation, then self-reflection and awareness will remain a critical part of our overall curriculum design.

 

Webster-Wright, A. (2009). Reframing Professional Development through understanding authentic professional learning. Review of Educational Research, 79(2), 702. DOI: 10.3102/0034654308330970

 

Rather than focus specifically on PD for teachers, this article seeks to redefine PD across industries, reframing it as an ongoing process of “professional learning” that retains respect for participants. According to the article, professional learning is “continuing, active, social, and related to practice” (p. 703). Professional learning does not operate under the assumption that professionals have skills that need to be developed (i.e. skills that are lacking), but rather that professionals are constantly learning in their day-to-day activities and can perpetually learn from each other.

 

To support this reframing of PD, the article reviews relevant research about current trends in PD, including community education and workplace learning. Both of these models, the article argues, harbor positive aspects – including the holistic approach of community education and the social aspect of workplace learning. By searching current research databases for PD-related articles, the author reviews the process of framing and approaching PD, proceeding to offer both criticisms and alternative conceptualizations of professional learning. These alternative views include thinking of professional learning as “any experience where professionals consider they have learned” (p. 713). This perspective deconstructs the notion of PD as a “session” or “one-shot” class that teachers need to complete.

 

Professional learning, as conceptualized in the article, provides the social, pedagogical, and intellectual support growing professional need. This research further emphasizes the importance of Teacher Learning Circles, as the Circle also prioritize these dimensions of learning.

 

Education in Conflict and Conflict-Sensitive Education

 

Bush, K.D., and Saltarelli, D. (2000).  The two faces of education in ethnic conflict: Towards a peace building education for children. Florence: Innocenti Research Centre, UNICEF.

 

Bush and Saltarelli discuss the implications of education, both positive and negative, during ethnic conflict.  Due to the complex, subjective, and malleable nature of ethnicity, countries can use education as a means to heighten or mitigate conflict. Education systems have traditionally pushed for “cultural homogeneity” (Bush and Saltarelli, 2000, p. 6), but they also have the power to integrate or exclude minority populations.

 

The authors outline an array of ways in which education can positively or negatively impact inter-ethnic relations. As a weapon of warfare, education can create uneven distribution based on minority/majority affiliation, repress certain cultures in terms of language and location, target schools, instate biased teaching practices in an attempt to suppress minorities, develop bias and stereotypes in textbooks, increase segregation, and diminish the self-worth of minority groups. On the other hand, when used as a tool for mitigating ethnic tensions, education can provide equitable opportunities, help the cultural majority learn about the “cultural other”, work to de-segregate the minds of children, include linguistic diversity in the curricula, teach shared and common experiences, developing critical views of history, and foster education for peace.

 

Bush and Saltarelli also delineate the purpose of peace-building education. Bigger than peace education, peace-building education “allows students to articulate, accommodate and accept differences between and within groups” (Bush and Saltarelli, 2000, p. 23). In order for peace-building education to be a success, community members and locals must drive the education initiatives. Overall, this article clearly exposes the various ways in which education can be a positive or negative force for conflict, abstractly discussing how education can work to mitigate or promote conflict. Yet, while the article gives good case studies, it does not describe how to ensure that education does not propagate negative behaviors. TLCs must keep in mind the lessons from Bush and Saltarelli’s review of the two faces of education to ensure that they are having the most positive impact through education without the negative consequences.

 

Inter-Agency Network on Education in Emergencies (INEE). (2013). Guidance Note on Conflict Sensitive Education. New York, NY.

 

The INEE Guidance Note on Conflict Sensitive Education (GN) outlines strategies for developing conflict-sensitive education responses for all practitioners and policy makers in conflict-affected contexts. Defined as “acting to minimize negative impacts and maximize positive impacts of education policies and programming on conflict”, conflict-sensitive education can greatly benefit a number of individuals in emergency situations (INEE, 2013, p. 12). Peace-building, on the other hand, seeks to contribute to peace and address the causes of the conflict. The GN lays out strategies by five domains: foundational, access and learning, teaching and learning, teachers and other education personnel, and education policy.

 

Before implementing any response, the GN recommends conducting a comprehensive conflict analysis that involves a diverse and comprehensive group of participants, ensuring genuine understanding of the causes of the conflict and resulting needs. All aspects of assessment, monitoring, and evaluation must consider the entirety of the populations involved. Whenever possible, the design of the program should support the Ministry of Education. Community participation in emergencies, however, proves more complicated, as it must consider the displaced populations as well as the linkages with the host community. The response must also carefully observe conflict dynamics: in order to achieve both sustainable and culturally appropriate education activities, there must be transparent coordination between the implementing agency and the education authorities. As a result, these agencies may adopt conflict sensitive strategies in their long-term plans.

 

In conflict settings, all learners must have access to education opportunities, including former child soldiers, displaced persons, and other vulnerable populations. Given the added potential for physical and psychological harm, learning sites and access routes must be safe and free of military presence.

Administrators may need to review teaching materials and methods, augmenting or removing any content and/or strategies that may exacerbate conflict or tensions in the learning space. Teacher training materials must undergo the same process, and teacher recruitment must also encompass unbiased and inclusive attitudes, accounting for and including any marginalized groups.

 

As teachers enter the training process, it is important that relevant authorities accredit it. This process must be consistent for native and displaced teachers alike. Much like the students, teachers are also in a difficult context, and the education programming must offer them ample support and supervision at all levels. Finally, the GN outlines strategies for incorporating education as a basic human right in national education policies during times of conflict. The education programs must include equitable access, conflict preparedness, and strategies for coordination as well as resource procurement. Through the GN, practitioners and policymakers are able to “prevent negative and… maximize positive impacts of [the education] programme on conflict and violence factors” (INEE, 2013).

 

The GN emphasizes the need for psychosocial support of teachers and effective training in the face of emergency, which the TLC is designed to address. By incorporating the lessons from the INEE GN, TLCs will be sure to be conflict-sensitive in their approach to both teacher training and the pedagogies used by these teachers.

 

Smith, A. and Vaux, T. (2003).  Education, conflict, and international development. DFID.

 

Smith and Vaux outline the complex role of education in causing, preventing, sustaining, and preventing violent conflict. In arguing for the inclusion of education in the humanitarian and development agenda, the authors reinforce the idea of education as a basic human right that must not be overlooked during conflict. Education is also a major part of the development agenda through the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Education for All (EFA) goals.

 

Administrators must strategically plan education responses, especially considering that ill-informed responses can potentially exacerbate the pre-existing problem. Before any programming begins, Smith and Vaux recommend a comprehensive conflict analysis that integrates education.  The state education system may be difficult to work within, because state actors who may be part of the conflict run it. Smith and Vaux suggest a differentiated system, which separates the various structures to minimize corruption. Program officials must consider other aspects of schooling – including the curricula, language of instruction, religious implications, culture, history, geography, learning materials, teachers and their training, peace education, and education reforms. In times of armed conflict, the emergency response, as well as the reconstruction and reconciliation plans, should incorporate education. Highlighting elements  that must be particularly considered, Smith and Vaux assert that gender-based violence and sexual exploitation, child soldiers, landmines and disability, displaced children, psychological impact of conflict, and health are all integral parts of the initial education-planning process.

 

Overall, Smith and Vaux explain the various roles that education agencies can play in promoting an effective education response, from training and research to coordination and division of mandates. The article’s policy recommendations address overarching issues, such as education as part of the problem, systemic analysis and approaches, and education systems. Though this approach is necessary, it omits the fact that grassroots education development is also necessary for education responses. Although international mechanisms are useful, local initiatives are the most sustainable and have the most impact. By incorporating local actors and creating a program that will be primarily locally run, the TLC project will combine both the systemic approach by addressing teacher training, and the local perspective and leadership. All of the aspects of education in emergencies that are outlined by Smith and Vaux must be incorporated into the development of successful TLCs.